Rhetoric in the Declaration of Independence

Now we transition away from bourgeois tragic drama and towards declarations.  Dr. Jarratt introduces declarations as texts that serve to enact political bonds.  We read documents like this differently than we read stories.  Stories we read as literature whereas declarations must be examined rhetorically.  Rhetoric is the study of how we use language to persuade.  This can include logic, but also emotional appeal.  Dr. Jarratt wants us to think of rhetoric as the study of how we do things with words.

Before we discuss the details of the Declaration of Independence, we should think about the history before this time.  The 18th century was a time of great political change.  John Locke is credited for being the grandfather of social contract theory, which is the view that governments are formed when groups of rational individuals decide to join together for mutual benefit.  This was a move away from monarchy, where kings claimed to have political power granted to them by divine right.  The 18th century saw the rise of a public sphere, where people from different classes could join together and discuss public issues.  It was also a time of great economic disparity between the aristocratic class and the lower working class.  

Now let's consider the organization of the Declaration.  First, we begin with a general description of the current political situation and the way in which this group of individuals was unified in the fight against being subordinated by the King of England.  Second, the author introduces the basic principles, or warrants, that ground the rest of the argument: these self-evident truths such as all men being created equal to pursue life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.  Third, the author provides factual support for grievances against the King of England  Fourth, the reader is introduced to the background of the conflict (petitions, warnings, appeals and finally separation).  This reminds us that there were attempts to solve this conflict in other ways.  Fifth, the author concludes with a firm declaration of independence.    

How are we to understand these unalienable rights, or self evidence truths, such as all have the right to a pursuit of happiness?  What kind of notion of happiness did the authors intend to use?  In the 18th century, happiness was something that is based on virtue and excellence of character.  One could only be happy if one had cultivated an intellectual nature moral judgment.  Happiness only comes about after working hard on yourself to be an altruistic and public-oriented individual.  

One important detail about the language used in the text is that when we look at different drafts of the text, Jefferson first refers to his peers as fellow subjects, but then later introduces the word "citizen".  

Note, however, that many people are not considered under this declaration: Native Americans, African slaves or any women.  Indeed, an earlier draft by Jefferson included admonishments against George III for the slave trade.  These criticisms against the slave trade were later taken out.  

Storytelling in "The Betrothal"

When we look closely at the way the story is told, we see that the narrator is biased against the black population on Haiti.  The narrator describes the "innumerable favours and kindnesses" of Guillaume de Villeneuve.  Congo Hoango, however, is described as being frenzied.  There is no explanation that this is a slave revolt.  The narrator notes that the violence is caused by the freeing of the slaves, which he calls reckless.  Hoango is represented as cruel, treacherous and violent.  De Villeneuve is represented as generous loyal honest.  It is unclear based on this evidence alone whether the narrator is to be taken seriously or ironically.

Dr. Pan is convinced that the narrator is to be taken seriously and that he represents a view similar to Gustav.  Gustav seems to be racist against black people, even if he is unwilling to admit it.  Rather than making explicitly racist claims, he gives a series of instances that are meant to support his opinion.  Gustav thinks in gross generalities based on stories about individuals of each race.  He clearly thinks that even if there has been tyranny against black people in Haiti, the whites are still in the moral right.  Dr. Pan thinks this echoes an opinion that was popular among French people at the time.  Specifically, this is similar to the idea that slavery is preferable to freeing the slaves because there is somehow something essentially dangerous about black people being free.  

So Gustav himself is a narrator of stories within Kleist's fictional realm.  Remember Gustav's story about "faithful Marianne", a woman who sacrificed herself for him.  This story seems to be an attempt to convince Toni to be loyal to him (just like Marianne had been).  Gustav seems to put forward the value of loyalty as being key for a moral person.  After telling this story, he later promises to marry Toni.  Toni then defends Gustav against Babekan.  She is impressed with his honor and nobility and she takes on his perspective on the conflict.  This set of values is also familiar within the genre of bourgeois tragic drama.  Bourgeois qualities include honestly, loyalty and pity.    Blacks, however, seem to have "aristocratic" values, such as treachery, deceit and cruelty.  Another similarity between Kleist's story and bourgeois tragic drama is that the bond to which the female ultimately is loyal is the bond of love to a man of another class.

Another story told is Babekan's story about Toni's father, who abandoned Babekan and his baby.  Also, Babekan notes that Villeneuve is rather cruel at times, having been responsible for ordering sixty lashes for Babekan.  This perspective is in tension with the narrator.  Another reason why there is tension between Babekan's perspective and Gustav's is that Babekan notes that Komor, who is not related to Toni, was willing to adopt her.  It seems that whites favor biological bonds more than the blacks, who value the maintenance of a household regardless of biological heritage.  We also find out that Hoango is very loyal to his sons and that his soldiers are loyal to Hoango such that they will fight to the death in his name.  Here we see that the "bad" "aristocratic" values can also be found in white people and that the positive values can be found in black people.  So from this perspective, we can criticize both the narrator and Gustav.

We should also note that at the end of the story, Toni claims that she is not a traitor because she is white and so she is on their side of the conflict.

In this story, we have three different ways to interpret the conflict.  First, we have Gustav's attempt to make claims based on the individual traits of some members of a community.  On this interpretation, the conflict is between humans and "inhuman" or immoral people.  Second, Babekan seems to think that the community is the marker of whether someone is on the right side of a conflict.  On this interpretation, one should be loyal to community rather than to blood or to individual people and this is the perspective through which we should judge parties in a conflict. Third, Toni seems to represent a commitment to a political alliance based on racial divisions.  On this interpretation, conflict is between communities with relatively homogenous racial composition.

Within this story, then, the "objectivity" of events lies in the specific interpretation of the individual.  Society is thus a product of interpretation.  "Objective" facts about a community or about a society depend on the interpretations of specific individuals.

Art vs. Life, Goethe vs. Kleist

Dr. Pan started lecture by noting a tension (what he calls a contradiction) between the way in which Goethe's version of the Faust story is a reinterpretation of an old tale and the fact that the point of Goethe's version is to focus not on stories, books and words but to focus on the real world.  Although Goethe wants to emphasize the importance of worldly experience, he is doing so by means of words, concepts and abstractions.  His method (literature) seems to be in conflict with the moral of his story (to experience the world).  We also see here how literature is then construed as an imitation of the world.  Experience is prior to interpretation.  Dr. Pan contrasted this with Kleist.  Kleist thinks that events and experiences are just how they are interpreted.  On this view, experience is not prior to interpretation.  Each interpretation, each act of putting meaning on the world or understanding the world, is a creative act that has consequences for the real world. Literature, then, can be prior to the world.

In the 19th century, Goethe was criticized for his seemingly anti-religious, individualist, humanist ethic.  Joseph von Eichendorff criticized him for undermining religion and other idealistic enterprises, since Faust does not want to just follow ideals but to develop through striving and struggling. When Germany became unified in late 19th century (1871), Goethe's Faust becomes the tale of a hero who represents an ideal German national identity.  In fact, praise for Faust's character peaks during the Nazi period in Germany.  Hermann August Korff, in accordance with Destro, notes that Faust thinks that personal development is more important than conventional morality.  Dr. Pan wants to note a similarity between the "Faustian man", who fulfills his earthly projects at all costs and the expansionist thinking that characterizes the Nazi period in Germany.

There is an alternative reading of Goethe's Faust.  W.E.B. Du Bois, for example, puts a more positive spin on the notion of striving.  Du Bois calls upon oppressed individuals to strive against their oppressors and to "attain a place in the world".  Another link between Du Bois and Goethe is the notion of two souls.  In 1111-17, Faust talks about his two souls: one desiring worldly striving, the other wanting sublime ideals.  Du Bois thinks that having two souls, or having a split nature, is at the core of the problem for African-Americans living under Jim Crow laws.  Du Bois calls this a "double consciousness", meaning that one is always looking at herself through her own eyes and through the eyes of the dominant society.  This is now a conflict between two cultures instead of just a conflict between an individual and society.

Dr. Pan thinks that the Kleist story is a story is related because we must consider whether "The Betrothal in San Domingo" is mainly a conflict between an individual and society or between two communities.  Dr. Pan notes that at the outset, the narrator seems to be presenting objective facts, but the narrator actually presents a very biased opinion by leaving out important details, such as the practice of slavery in San Domingo (where it had been practiced since the 16th century) or the fact that there was a revolution going on in Haiti.  In 1789, Haiti made up 2/3 of the economic production of France.  Or more specifically, the work of half a million slaves accounted for 2/3 of French trade.  1789 was also the year of the French Revolution, which was based on principles such as the equality of all men and their natural born freedom.  The Articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man include claims about how all humans have rights such as liberty.  Clearly these ideals conflict with the practice of slavery.  So in 1791, a slave revolt begins.  At this point, Britain actually attempts to take over the colony and take advantage of slavery.  In response, the French abolish slavery in order to protect San Domingo from British and Spanish intruders.  After abolitionist Toussaint L'Ouuverture helps the French to succeed, he is imprisoned and then dies a year later, in 1803.  In 1804, the black general Dessalines (known for defeating French troops in 1803) declares independence for Haiti.

The French Revolution is relevant for Germany, as there were some battles between German troops defending a monarchy and French revolutionists.  The western border of Germany was home to many battles between those who wanted to liberate German citizens and those who wanted to support the German monarchy.  Finally in 1806, Napoleon defeats Prussians at Jena, starting a French occupation of the German-speaking world.  Kleist was actually a soldier in the siege of Mainz, fighting against French troops.  Kleist is then later imprisoned in the same place as L'Ouuverture, where he could have heard about the struggle of Haitians against the French.  We can see that the French played a role in much of the conflict in Kleist's own life as well as being a main focus of his story.

P.O.S. and Individualism: A Contrast Case

Here are a number of songs from Minneapolis rapper P.O.S.  These songs express commitment to values which are similar to Faust's values such as individualism, passion and striving.  He also expresses commitment to some values that are not consonant with Faust's values.  I'm posting this here because I think he provides a nice contrast case to Faust.  Also, it's really freakin' good.

Which values are shared by Faust and P.O.S.?  Which are not shared? What are apparent social differences between P.O.S. and Faust?  Do they share values in spite of these differences, not share values because of these differences or, perhaps, some combination of these two alternatives? How might social differences or differences in values matter when we consider whether either figure could be considered a hero?


"Goodbye"     "De la Souls"  "Purexed"     "Gimme Gimme Gunshots" (explicit content)

Data as Faustian Hero?

In Star Trek: The Next Generation, there is a character who is an android but who constantly strives to be human.  Here are two clips that show characteristics that make him seem like a Faustian hero.

First, we have a scene where Data has recently acquired the capacity for emotion, and he seems to revel in his worldly experiences.

Second, we have a scene where Data expresses commitment to constant striving.

Each scene provides insight into the characteristics that Data has that seem to make him similar to Faust.  What other pop culture heroes (or villains) seem to represent a kind of Faustian hero?

Tragedy, Comedy & Irony

Dr. Pan points out that although the main storyline is a tragedy, there are also elements of comedy and irony.  For example, in lines 2831-40, Goethe seems to be making fun of the Catholic church by saying that it has an iron stomach and is able to consume states and countries through imperialistic means in spite of the fact that the church preaches anti-materialism.  Goethe uses Mephistopheles as a means to criticize this hypocrisy.  In lines 1990-2000, Mephistopheles makes fun of academia, noting that words can often take the place of thoughts and concepts.  In 2985-97, the devil notes that bourgeois marriage is not about eternal love but about self-interest.  A woman may pretend to mourn for her dead husband, but only while looking for a new groom.  Here we have three examples of institutions that Goethe criticizes for being hypocritical.  We can then see that Faust can appear as a hero acting in his own individual interests in the face of these unjust social institutions.

Another point where humor comes into the play is the Walpurgis Night scene.  In lines 3956-61, the witches announce their procession in a way that focuses on fart jokes and bodily humor.  In lines 4056-59, the devil commends them for their freedom.  Dr. Pan wants us to see this as an alternative to the restrictive social setting in which the tragedy happens.  The witches represent a free society from which we can critique an overly repressive social order.  In lines 4123-43, we do have some critical discussion in the midst of debauchery and thinly veiled pornographic language.  Dr. Pan thinks that this is meant to be a shift from operetta to burlesque, where we go from taking this seriously to making fun of it.  Then, the rational proctophantasmist comes in to criticize their debauchery.  In turn, Faust criticizes this man for not experiencing the world.  However, our rational enlightened gentleman believes that such folly and superstition cannot be real anyway.  

We can thus see that the Walpurgis Night can be read as a utopian alternative to the oppressive world of Christian Morals. It is a place of freedom, it is a place where the enlightened individual has no spiritual concerns and it is a place where there is no prejudice against "witches" or against liberated women like Margaret. Alternatively, we can read this scene as quite sinister.  At one point, during lines 4183-4200, Faust thinks he sees his beloved Gretchen, but the devil diverts him from that with the Walpurgis Night.  Hence we can read this scene as supposed to be representative of the devil's intentional distraction of Faust.  Mephistopheles seems to want to distract Faust from caring about Margaret in order to serve destructive and evil forces.  In fact, the scene also distracts the audience from the tragedy of the overall storyline. We can also see how this scene might be read as representative of Faust's own individualistic nature.

Dr. Pan then turns towards the role of the devil in this play.  Does he help Faust to strive or does he impede Faust's striving?  In lines 1851-67, it seems that the devil intends to distract Faust from striving by tempting him with material pleasures.  The devil does a number of harmful things.  First, he provides the sleeping potion which kills Margaret's mother.  Second, he defends Faust from Valentine, who Faust later kills.  He also provides Faust with Margaret, but Margaret is then subjected to tragedy.  He also rescues Faust from jail, but he leaves Gretchen to be executed.  The devil emphasizes (in the Gloomy Day scene) that Faust himself made the choices that led to violence.  In this reading, it seems that the devil is mostly a meddler meant to ruin Faust's life.  We can also read the devil character as being someone who encourages Faust's striving.  In lines 3278-92, Mephistopheles seems to make fun of Faust's feeling of power as being self-indulgent. Another thing to consider is Faust's view on his relationship with Margaret.  In lines 3345-65, Faust seems to acknowledge that it is his individualistic commitment to constant striving that will conflict with her static conventionalism.  In spite of the fact that he realizes that there is this essential tension, he accepts the incompatibility as an unfortunate fact.  He chooses to continue in spite of knowing that his choices will mean tragedy for others.  This is different from a normal tragedy because it is not the hero who suffers but everyone else who suffers as a result of his choices.

Faust: The Gretchen Story

Although the title character does have a prominent role in Faust, much of the story is actually about his daughter, Gretchen.  This is an entirely new addition by Goethe.  Dr. Pan notes that this is not the only innovation in Goethe's recasting of the story.  He sees this as a larger project of recasting the Faust story as one about the struggle between the individual and society.  The story about Gretchen is a well-known form of bourgeois tragic drama.  The story comes originally from Lessing, who wrote a story, Emilia Galotti, about a prince who wants to bed a young woman about to be married to a baron.  The prince plots a fake attack on the bride and groom and captures the woman, Emilia, under the pretense of protecting her.  The daughter eventually has her father kill her so that she does not succumb to the lecherous will of the prince.   In short, this follows the form of an evil aristocrat scheming to harm a bourgeois family.  The middle class families are portrayed as moral and good whereas the aristocrats are are portrayed as scheming and evil.

In Goethe's Faust, the bourgeois family drama is altered.  Whereas the point of view is usually from the family perspective, Goethe's tale is told from Faust's perspective.  Also, the father does not play such a large role, allowing the young woman to be more independent.  Another point of contrast is that whereas traditional bourgeois tragic dramas were about conflict between two kinds of communities, Faust is about the conflict between a society and an individual.  Speciically, this is is the story about Faust's dynamic individualism in conflict with Margaret's commitment to traditional conservatism and her family.

One scene that reveals this tension is the scene where Faust responds to the "Gretchen question".  Faust seems to believe in some pantheistic, physical manifestation of divinity.  He gives feelings as evidence for God, and denies the traditional names for this feeling.  We can also see this notion of divinity when the old man version of Faust talks to a spirit in 510-517 and 3217-21.  What is divine is thus something grounded in worldly experience of emotion.  Feelings become the highest justification for Faust's actions.  By embracing feeling and emotion, Faust seems to try to join with nature as a kind of divine hero.

In lines 3055-72, the devil is trying to convince Faust that he must lie to Margaret in order to seduce her.  Margaret wants eternal love and Faust is unable to offer that.  Faust notes that although his words might not represent true facts about the world, his words are grounded in passionate feelings which makes them seem true.  Words are used for rhetorical purposes, not for saying true things.  Faust admits that the devil is right because Faust cannot help but lie.  Dr. Pan notes that Faust thinks his words are meant to express his feeling and not to express a promise or an agreement.

Dr. Pan thinks that the story of Margaret is a fine example of a story about the conflict between individualism and respect for the community.  Whereas she brings a first jewelry box to her mother, she hides the second box with Martha.  She seems to further reject community pressure by choosing to be with Faust in spite of his rejection of "God", even going so far as to drug her mother to stay with him. Then her social guilt kicks in when she hears about another woman (Barbara) being criticized for similar behavior.  After becoming pregnant, she wants to rejoin her community, but she is unwelcome. She asserts her individualism again by killing her baby before finally resigning herself to the punishment that waits for her in prison rather than escaping with Faust.  Starting at line 4544, Margaret asserts this principle.  Faust, however, does not bee indebted to his community in the same way, as expressed in lines 1754-59.  It is also significant that the words of the community criticizing Margaret are mirrored by the words of an evil spirit (starting at line 3776).  This seems to be a way in which Goethe is criticizing society as embracing an evil, repressive, overly conservative spirit.  Hence the problem is not that the individual does not conform to the society.  Rather, the problem is that the community is too constricting in the first place.  Alternatively, we can also read the play as an indictment of individualism (if we see Faust as a traditional villain).

Art Imitates Life

Here is a link to "Color My World Mine" from Eyedea and Abilities.  This is the track we listened to in class that plays with the idea of the blurring lines between art as fiction and as reality.

Another song from a Twin Cities hip hop artist is the song "Room with a View", which is told from the perspective of a narrator looking out the window of his home.  This track is from Brother Ali, who is the most famous albino rapper in the world.

These two songs both have something different to contribute to the discussion about the influence of art on life and vice versa. 

Faust, Mephistopheles and a Deal

We begin with the Prologue of Goethe's Faust.  We first hear the angel Raphael hail the the glorious eternal creations of God.  Mephistopholes, however, only sees base human nature as that which is eternal.  God, as a sort of synthesis of these two views, notes that it is the devil's role to goad and prod human beings, whereas the angels are supposed to fix securely those things which are fleeting.  Humanity is between angels and the devil.  We are constantly growing and in a process of becoming something new.  Hence, human failure is what happens when we are stagnant and caught in stasis.  The devil is a source of constant growth and change.  While the devil is a destructive force, it is also true that new creation is preceded by darkness and destruction.  Light can only come from darkness.  So, too, the devil seems to be a precondition for good and positive creation.

At the beginning of the Faust story, Faust laments that although he has much knowledge and wisdom, he still ignorant.  He laments how much is still unknown to him.  After studying books his whole life, he decides to turn towards magic because he thinks it will give him direct experience of the world.  This is somewhat similar to the actual historical person upon whom Faust is based, since he first studied and taught at universities before becoming a wandering charlatan.  Dr. Pan notes that the tension between academic knowledge and real life experience was also present in the overall development of Europe in the 15th-17th centuries, a time when the original Faustbuch  was used as a tale of warning.  In the original version of the story, Faust may have had access to all sorts of worldly goods, but he was unsatisfied by these things and was ultimately damned for his life.  The narrator of this original tale also warns that scientists may appear to know things, but they lack heavenly salvation.  Contrast this with Goethe's story, in which Faust first begins with a commitment to theoretical knowledge and then later decides to seek salvation through action and deeds.

This is the most notable difference between Goethe's story and earlier versions.  In original versions, Faust traded his soul for 24 years of the devil's service.  Specifically, Faust is interested in worldly, physical pleasures.  In Goethe's story, however, in lines 1672-97, Faust makes specific claims that he does not want worldly pleasures and leisure.  Rather, Faust says he wants only that he never be satisfied.  Faust says that if the day ever comes where he is satisfied, he will let the devil take his soul.  If Faust were always to strive, then he would win the bet and continue to have the devil in his service.  However, if he should ever become satisfied with his life, he will lost the bet and his soul.  Faust thinks this is a pretty good deal, since if he were to ever stop trying to become something more than himself, he would be a slave anyway (1710-11).

Intro to Faust: Humanity vs. Society

In the winter quarter, we shift towards another pairing of humanity and one of its "others": society.

The first text we focus on is Goethe's Faust.  The structure of this work is somewhat complex.  Not only is there a dedication, but there is also a prelude (in the theater) and a prologue (in heaven).  Only after these three introductory bits do we get the actual story.  After a bit about Faust, we get the long story of Gretchen, which is interrupted by the Walpurgis Night.  This is all Faust I.  Faust II includes a continuation of the Gretchen story and the wrap-up of the Faust story.  Then we have a sort of epilogue in Act 5.

The dedication is a poem.  The narrator of the poem laments the passing of echoes and shadows of his past.  However, in the course of the poem, it becomes evident that for the narrator, what is shadowy and long gone now appears to be more immediate and real than what is actually real.  Overall, it is told from the perspective of an old man looking back on the personal stories of his life.  Similarly, Faust was written over the course of 60 years, so Goethe was an old man when Faust II was finished.  In fact, Goethe died a year after finishing the story.

In the prelude, which takes place in the theater, the manager character says that he wants the play to be successful so that they can make money and continue on with show business.  He is speaking with a clown and a poet.  It is important that the original versions of the Faust tale were meant to be warning tales to prevent people from being too conceited, cunning and godless.  Goethe is thus distinguishing himself from these earlier versions of the Faust tale (which was originally based on a real person).  One interpretation is that the early Faust tale was meant to oppress people by discouraging education.  In short, the story is supposed to discourage learning and education because they are associated with being in league with the devil.  While the manager says he wants to create a spectacle to make money, the poet character claims that he wants to write in order to preserve fleeting moments of personal truth that can be elucidated in poetic form.  Whereas the manager wants a spectacle to appeal to large crowds, the poet wants to immortalize personal feelings and experience.  The comedian tries to bring the two notions together.  The clown tries to appeal to ideas about life, error, being satiated, spectacle and variety, but he also talks about knowledge, truth, edification, revelation and depth.  The clown wants to synthesize the two positions.  Thus we see that the play is supposed to be a fiction, yet a fiction with truth with it.  The comedian ends one of his speecges by noting that the finished man is difficult to please, but a growing man will always show gratitude.

Crime Does Not Pay as Consistently as Virtue Does

Crime does pay sometimes.  Yet because virtue is its own reward, crime does not pay as consistently as virtue pays.

Here is a link to a NY Times article about the Hungarian President who resigned amid plagiarism charges.